Definition and Examples of Inflectional Morphology

Definition and Examples of Inflectional Morphology Inflectional morphology is  the study of the processes (such as affixation and vowel change) that distinguish the forms of words in certain grammatical categories. In comparison to many other languages, the inflectional system of Modern English is fairly limited.   Inflectional  morphology is customarily distinguished from derivational morphology (or word formation). As A.Y. Aikhenvald points out, Derivational morphology results in the creation of a new word with a new meaning. In contrast, inflectional morphology involves an obligatory grammatical specification characteristic of a word class (Typological Distinctions in Word-Formation in Language Typology and Syntactic Description, 2007). This distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. Examples and Observations Inflectional Categories and Derivational CatgeoriesThe prototypical inflectional categories include number, tense, person, case, gender, and others, all of which usually produce different forms of the same word rather than different words. Thus leaf and leaves, or write and writes, or run and ran are not given separate headwords in dictionaries. Derivational categories, in contrast, do form separate words, so that leaflet, writer, and rerun will figure as separate words in dictionaries. In addition, inflectional categories do not, in general, alter the basic meaning expressed by a word; they merely add specifications to a word or emphasize certain aspects of its meaning. Leaves, for instance, has the same basic meaning as leaf, but adds to this the specification of multiple exemplars of leaves. Derived words, by contrast, generally denote different concepts from their base: leaflet refers to different things from leaf, and the noun writer calls up a somewhat different concept from th e verb to write.That said, finding a watertight cross-linguistic definition of inflectional which will let us classify every morphological category as either inflectional or derivational is not easy. . . . [W]e define inflection as those categories of morphology that are regularly responsive to the grammatical environment in which they are expressed. Inflection differs from derivation in that derivation is a lexical matter in which choices are independent of the grammatical environment.​(Balthasar Bickel and Johanna Nichols, Inflectional Morphology. Language Typology and Syntactic Description: Grammatical Categories and the Lexicon, 2nd ed., edited by Timothy Shopen. Cambridge University Press, 2007) Dictionaries and Inflectional Morphology[I]t is not correct to say that dictionaries never have anything to say about inflectional morphology. This is because there are two reasons why a word form such as pianists does not have to be listed, and these reasons are interdependent. The first is that, once we know that an English word is a noun denoting a kind of thing that can be counted (if the noun is pianist or cat, perhaps, but not astonishment or rice), then we can be confident that it will mean simply more than one X, whatever X may be. The second reason is that, unless otherwise specified, we can be confident that the plural form of any countable noun will be formed by adding to the singular form the suffix -s (or rather, the appropriate allomorph of this suffix); in other words, suffixing -s is the regular method of forming plurals.That qualification unless otherwise specified is crucial, however. Any native speaker of English, after a moments thought, should be able to think of at least two or three nouns that form their plural in some other way than by adding -s: for example, child has the plural form children, tooth has the plural teeth, and man has the plural men. The complete list of such nouns in English is not long, but it includes some that are extremely common. What this means for the dictionary entries for child, tooth, man and the others is that, although nothing has to be said about either the fact that these nouns possess a plural form or about what it means, something does have to be said about how the plural is formed.(Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure. Edinburgh University Press, 2002) Eight Regular Morphological InflectionsThere are eight regular morphological inflections, or grammatically marked forms, that English words can take: plural, possessive, third-person singular present tense, past tense, present participle, past participle, comparative degree, and superlative degree. Most have phonologically sensitive realizations. . . .Modern English has relatively few morphological inflections in comparison with Old English or with other European languages. The inflections and word-class clues that do remain help the listener process incoming language.(Marianne Celce-Murcia, Donna M. Brinton, and Janet M. Goodwin, Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge University Press, 1996)Irregular Inflectional MorphologyThe so-called irregular inflectional morphology or morphological processes (such as internal vowel change or ablaut (sing, sang, sung)) today represent limited historical remnants of former grammatical inflectional systems which were probably semantically based and are now acquired lexically for frequently used lexical items rather than as grammatical systems (Tobin 1993:Ch. 12).​(Yishai Tobin, Phonology as Human Behavior: Inflectional Systems in English. Advances in Functional Linguistics: Columbia School Beyond Its Origins, ed. by Joseph Davis, Radmila J. Gorup, and Nancy Stern. John Benjamins, 2006)

Body's regulation of temperature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Body's regulation of temperature - Essay Example It's very important for us to know the capabilities of our body to fight such dangerous environment. We should know the roots of all that happens in our body. Though fever is treated by the masses us a simple thing that used to come on us and just ignoring this indicator. There is so much more to dig. Homeostasis is the tendency of an organism to maintain a uniform and beneficial physiological stability and between its parts.1 Homeostasis is a remarkable and typical property of an open system. Walter Cannon in 1932, took told the wisdom of the body, the homeostasis, from the two Greek words meaning to remain the same. The cell, which reacts represents the homeostatic system, to every change in the environment, its goal is to maintain its internal balance, stability and to survive, Much importantly when one is faced to a known reaction, or an expected situation and often the result is opposed to the action done. Remember that if one cell that contributes to the complex system; is neither distracted nor destroyed, the stability will not be able anymore to change and evolve. Mammals are endotherms. They do not rely on the sun for warmth because they can generate heat internally. Especially the smaller ones have a high run of the metabolism which helps them generate heat, enough for them to live and survive coldness. The subcutaneous fat that is located under the skin helps them conserve body heat from within, is an example of homeostasis. Body temperature also affects the process of metabolism. For instance, if the body is at work the temperature is high and will get muscles tired. This is the reasons why the internal parts are improperly functioning same if the body is cold or at rest. Therefore we should keep our body working not excessively but in balance work out which does not require our bone to tire up, we should do this for maintaining balance. The hypothalamus and Feedbacks Our brains have an accessory, which contain nerve cells that monitors both the temperatures of the skin and the internal organs called the hypothalamus. If the body temperature is below 37oC the tendency of the hypothalamus is to produce some chemicals that will inform the cells of the entire body to speed up their

For this assignment you are asked to first select ONE of the following Essay

For this assignment you are asked to first select ONE of the following topics to investigate - Essay Example Several publications put an emphasis on the developments and realities of video conferencing. They illustrated case after case of people making use of video conferencing and avoiding travel (Davidson & Cope 2003). A number of companies, such as Siemens, LifeSize, and Cisco Systems, have been developing this form of technology for several years now (King 2009). Fortunately, or unfortunately for others, the rapid progress of the current economic crisis is speeding the pace of its implementation. It is not likely that video conferencing can replace business travel, yet companies are increasingly resorting to it as the drawback of the technology—such as dropped calls, wobbly connections, and confusing delays—mostly has been remedied (Tracy 2009). This essay is an attempt to discuss the possibility of video conferencing replacing business travel in the near future. Through specific examples and empirical evidence this essay aims to give light to this new trend in technology and business tourism industry. The current literature on this issue includes the inexpensiveness of video conferencing and transforming economics as well as the ‘not so sophisticated’ adaptations of the technology such as those provided by google, yahoo, or skype. These low- and high-tech video technologies are by now beginning to transform numerous procedures not just in the business tourism industry but also in other professional and skilled sectors of the economy. Several authors discussed particularly the effect of video conferencing on business travel and reduced popularity of business travel. For instance, Hewlett-Packard and Cisco have experienced a considerable growth rate in their video conferencing units over the recent decade (King 2009). The enterprise of video technology is fascinating in two points. First, from the point of view of the customers, although the direct capital needed is not negligible, it

Social Psychology, What it would be like to be an African American Essay

Social Psychology, What it would be like to be an African American Male - Essay Example The African Americans are influenced by the common Americans as well as all those that live near them. The basic point to note here is that they are not being dealt in a fair manner. They are subject to the mercy of their superiors, which should not be the case in the first place. African Americans have left their African lands in search of a better living but what they find in American for so many years now is an attitude and treatment full of bias and malice on the part of the latter. The only manner in which a young African American gets to know more about his own self and his roots is through his ancestors as the country and its media do not project the Blacks in such a fashion as should be the case. His parents and other family members teach him what his upbringing is all about and what asked of them to migrate towards America. The development of this young individual is in the hands of the Americans, the Whites. Now it is up to them how they treat him and what sort of work they want him to do and for whom. Not only this, his character is built in such a way that he always feels under the rule of a White, which is a pure American. This man feels that he is impure and does not belong to the country as the White American does. Others think of the African American male as being an outsider, who has crept into the American lands either through some fraudulent tactics or other similar activities. Nobody is agreeable to his being there no matter what the circumstances are. The stereotypes related with him are that since he does not belong to the place, he will never be loyal with the nation, its values, customs and ethics. He will steal; commit forgery and other heinous acts which are considered derogatory in nature by all concerned. Other stereotype related with him is that since he is Black, he will always be kept at the position that is behind a pure White American. Concepts of attribution theory and confirmation bias

Effect of Consumption on Identity in Britain

Effect of Consumption on Identity in Britain We are what we consume. To what extent does consumption contribute to the construction of identity in contemporary British society? In order to understand the extent to which consumption contributes to the construction of identity in contemporary British society, and thus be in a position to comment on whether or not â€Å"we are what we consume† is a valid statement or simply hyperbole, it is important to first understand the sociological concepts behind the question being asked. â€Å"Consumption† in sociological terms does not simply mean the buying and consuming of goods and services. In particular, sociologists are interested in consumption as a means of conveying meaning. â€Å"Conspicuous consumption† is a term that was originally coined by Thorstein Veblen and it refers to the ways in which people convey the extent of their wealth to others in a society in which the traditional means of conveying meaning have largely disappeared. Veblen argued that in society, a person’s standing was directly related to their wealth. The manner in which this wealth had been accumulated was also important, with old wealth being more highly esteemed then new wealth. The wealthy individual had two ways in which to proclaim their social standing; conspicuous leisure and/or conspicuous consumption.[1] It is important to understand the historical background that has led to the current consumption patterns in contemporary Britain. The industrial revolution was a time of massive social upheavals. Historical bonds of servitude and deference were shattered and millions of people streamed into the UK’s cities. A consequence of this mass upheaval was that wealth creation was no longer tied to the land. Suddenly a person who owned a factory could potentially have the same amount of wealth as someone who considered themselves to be part of the upper classes and whose wealth came with status. Wealth, by itself, was no longer a sufficient means of separating the upper classes from the pretenders. This was especially so in the large towns that had been created in which people were constantly interacting with strangers who were unaware of a person’s social status. As such, conspicuous consumption came to be an increasingly important means of differentiating oneself from others.[2 ] The aspirational dreams unleashed during the industrial revolution meant that, in general terms, people belonging to a lower class could now potentially overcome the wealth divide simply through hard work. Overcoming the class divide was a little more difficult and it was achieved by essentially copying the consumption habits of that class to which a person aspired. Whether consumption drove the industrial revolution or whether the industrial revolution drove consumption may never be answered. The one thing that is certain is that each fuelled the other. The more people consumed the greater the flames of industry. The more exotic and fashionable the items produced, the greater the frenzy of consumption. However, what is clear is that traditional attitudes to work and consumption had to be overcome. Weber gives a interesting example that illustrates this point; â€Å"a man†¦ who at the rate of 1 mark per acre mowed 2.5 acres per day and earned 2.5 marks when the rate was raised to 1.25 marks per acre mowed, not 3 acres, as he might easily have done, thus earning 3.75 marks, but only 2 acres, so that he could still earn the 2.5 marks to which he was accustomed. The opportunity of earning more was less attractive to than that or working less. He did not ask: how much can I earn in a day if I work as much as possible? But: how much must I work in order to earn the wage, 2.5 marks, which I earned before and which takes care of my traditional needs?†[3] In the above example Weber seems to be lampooning this simple person who fails to understand that by working longer hours they can earn more money. In contemporary British society, it almost seems as though leisure time cannot be enjoyed without having first purchased the means of enjoying that time. Thus wide screen televisions, games consoles, international holidays, books, dvds, etc are all things without which people are made to believe they could not enjoy their leisure time. This should be contrasted to the person in Weber’s example who believed that simply being away from work was enough of a reward in itself. One suggested definition of a consumer culture, put forward in order to encompass conspicuous consumption in Third World countries, but also useful as a general starting point, is one, â€Å"in which the majority of consumers avidly desire (and some noticeable portion pursue, acquire, and display) goods and services that are valued for non-utilitarian reasons, such as status seeking, envy provocation, and novelty seeking.†[4] As such, any society in which consumption involves more than simply subsistence living (ie living to survive) will involve to some extent a degree of conspicuous consumption. Likewise, the concept of â€Å"identity† in contemporary sociological terms has developed beyond simply looking at a person’s occupation and class.[5] This move away from employment constituting the main source of a person’s identity splintered sociological thought. Whereas previously a person’s identity fell into several reasonably clear sociological categories and sociological theorists could hypothesis on the â€Å"macro† topics of relations between these groups, the shattering of the nexus between work and identity meant that sociologists now had to turn their attention to areas which had to that point been somewhat overlooked. The study of consumption by sociologists has relatively recent origins. While Marx and Veblen touched on consumption, their focus remained on class and occupational identities. That said, their early work in this area should not be discounted. Marx argued that by separating workers from ownership of the goods they produced and the means of that production, they were essentially being â€Å"estranged from their labour.†[6] As we will see below, this estrangement can lead to disillusionment in employees. However, it should be noted that consumption, being aspirational, actually thrives on feelings of disillusionment. As Weber’s example above illustrates, it is difficult to sell a person who is content an illusion. In their pioneering text on consumption, â€Å"The World of Goods†, Douglas and Isherwood noted with incredulity that, it is extraordinary to discover that no one knows why people want goods.[7] They went on to put forward the argument that â€Å"consumers use goods to construct an intelligible universe and to make and maintain social relationships.†[8] One could perhaps argue that in contemporary British society identity and consumption have become one and the same. As the wealth of society as a whole has increased and family bonds have slowly eroded, people look to advertisements, their peer group and celebrities to assist them in identifying themselves. However, by creating an identity which is outside of themselves and which relies on imported meanings, they run the risk of the identity they present to the world being itself an illusion. When such an illusion is shattered, it can have serious consequences for that person and those around them. Historically, British society has always been extremely class segregated. However, in modern British society, class wars have been to a large extent been replaced by battles of consumption. A particularly good example of this was the recent news that the Labour minister Ruth Kelly had made a decision to send her child to an expensive private school when a suitable state alternative existed. The arguments surrounding her decision clearly illustrate the extent to which choices about consumption can clash with a person’s public identity. The fact that Mrs Kelly is a Labour minister and former Education Secretary means to some people that she should not make decisions about her consumption of services which are contrary to party lines. A clear example of this thinking is set out in Simon Jenkins recent article in the Guardian.[9] He argues that: â€Å"To remove a child from the state school system is rarely an educational choice, whatever euphemism is customarily applied. It is a social statement. Across class-bound Britain, the exclusive school, whether state or private, reinforces the great divide.†[10] Other commentators from within the Labour party went on record to state[11]: I think it goes against the principles of the Labour Party. I am saddened by this and it makes me wonder about the sort of people who achieve high office who are in New Labour† (Birmingham Selly Oak MP Lynne Jones). I think we should expect Labour ministers to put their children through the state system. I deplore others transferring their children out of the system to go private† (Austin Mitchell, MP for Great Grimsby). What underpins these statements is the underlying belief that a person’s true identity is revealed by their consumption decisions. Furthermore, if one believes in a certain cause, not to support that cause through consumption decisions is akin to betray. While the Labour party may no longer be the â€Å"worker’s party†, it is still the party that most fervently advocates the role of public services and those less well off. The difficulty then for Labour ministers is that with their own increasing affluence, they are more likely to want to make consumption decisions which are more akin to the upper middle classes as opposed to their traditional support base. This naturally causes friction and inevitably calls of hypocrisy when the illusion is discovered. It should be noted that conspicuous consumption crosses divides of culture, race, age and religion. An interesting case in point is the Muslim Hijab which some women wear. These have now become â€Å"hot fashion items† for young Muslim women branded with for instance, Calvin Klein, Burberry, L’Oreal and Chanel logos. In this way, a Muslim woman can make the statment that while her religion is Muslim, her identity is Western. Likewise, Fulla dolls have replaced Barbie dolls in many Middle Eastern countries where the doll is a best seller.[12] The fact that Fulla’s popularity is about identity is clear in Mr Abidin’s (the brand manager behind the doll) statement: This isnt just about putting the hijab on a Barbie doll. You have to create a character that parents and children will want to relate to. Our advertising is full of positive messages about Fullas character. Shes honest, loving, and caring, and she respects her father and mother. While one may question what relevance the sale of a doll in the Middle East might have in contemporary Britain, the point is that in a global, inter-dependant marketplace, the West no longer dictates the consumption agenda as it once did. And as new ideas and aspirations emerge, these then filter back into the consumption patterns of British society as people in Britain seek to communicate those aspirations through their consumption. The interesting irony is the way in which a consumer society has managed to incorporate all these conflicting and competing ideas, some which even argue against consumerism, into nice, consumable packages. This is perhaps what is at the heart of the statement â€Å"we are what we consume†; that even if we identify ourselves as being anti-consumer, the only way to communicate that message to others is through consumption itself. Ritzer[13] suggests four changes that have occurred within society as a result of the process of consumption. These changes are first, that people no longer have to go to different shops to obtain the goods they wish to purchase but can instead go to supermarkets or shopping centres which cater for all their needs under one roof. While this does on doubt create a more convenient shopping experience, it also creates a more sterile one as everything is controlled and there is little chance of anything out of the ordinary occurring.[14] Second, many of what he calls the â€Å"cathederals of consumption† such as Disney Land and Las Vegas, have become destinations in their own right. People are just as likely to go there to enjoy the sites for what they are/represent as they are to go there to consume the goods and services offered by them.[15] Third, customers are more likely to do more of the things employees previously did for them, for themselves for no pay. Clear examples of this are the checkouts at supermarkets, with many British supermarkets now having some type of self-checkout service, self-service petrol stations, and cash points.[16] Finally, the process of consumption has altered social interaction to such an extent that a consumer is more likely to interact with the sites as opposed to any other people.[17] In many cases, the people with whom a consumer is interacting during the consumption process are so scripted in their role that interaction on a human level is close to impossible. To a certain extent, those employers are trying to break down the roles that their employees perform to such an extent that they can eventually be replaced by machines. In circumstances such as these, it is hardly surprising that many workers feel disillusioned and seek, in their leisure time, to escape from the monotony of their unfulfilled lives through consumption. In this case, perhaps consumption isn’t conspicuous but rather innocuous. Ratneshwar[18] looks under the illusion created by many of these â€Å"cathedrals of consumption† and in a scathing indictment argues that the â€Å"underlying rationality and sheer manipulativeness of these places are more likely to remain hidden from consumers.† However, people who work in these places quickly become disillusioned and come to see them as places â€Å"largely devoid of meaningful content.† [19] The interesting thing about modern consumption is that a person’s presence is never permanent. At the end of every day, everything is put back the way it was and when the shop/amusement park/cinema reopens the next day it is almost as if the previous day never happened. These places of consumption lack any historical or human dimension. They rely on people to give them meaning and yet, perhaps ironically, they themselves claim to be the givers of meaning. One could perhaps say that they sell back the meaning they have stolen from their customers (no doubt this would be Marx’s view). That said, it would be difficult to argue that a middle class person living in Britain today is worse off, or would willing trade places, with a person living in the middle ages. Even though that person in the middle ages may have had a clear identity about themselves and their position in the world, that certainty constrains them in a way in which a modern person would not be willing to be constrained (although it is arguable that this is slowly changing and that people are becoming more constrained). The fundamental feature in a society of consumption is that we are all complicit in the illusion taking place. As Ruth Kelly has shown, our consumption habits make hypocrites of us all. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bourdieu, P. (1977), Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Belk, R. W. (1988), Third World Consumer Culture, in Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F. Kiron, D. (1997), The Consumer Society, Island Press, Washington DC, pp.311-314 Bocock, R. (2001), Consumption, Routledge, London Corrigan, P. (2006), The Sociology of Consumption: An Introduction, Sage Publications, London The Daily Mail, Ruth Kelly named as Labour minister sending a child to private school, 8th January 2007, taken from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=427179in_page_id=1770 Douglas, M. Isherwood, B. (2005), The World of Goods, Routledge, London Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F. Kiron, D. (1997), The Consumer Society, Island Press, Washington DC Jenkins, S., Introducing the minister of no faith in communities, in Guardian Unlimited, 10th January 2007, taken from http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,1986631,00.html The New York Times, Bestseller in Mideast: Barbie With a Prayer Mat, 22nd September 2005, taken from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/22/international/middleeast/22doll.html?ex=1285041600en=72bb8cc089bf9435ei=5090 Ransome, P. (2005), Work, Consumption and Culture: Affluence and Social Change in the Twenty-first Century, Sage Publications, London Ratneshwar, S. Mick, D. G. ed. (2005), Inside Consumption: Perspectives on Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires, Routledge, New York Ritzer, G. (2005), Enchanting a Disenchanted World: Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption, Pine Forge Press Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed. (2003), Handbook of Social Theory, Sage Publications Ltd, London Storey, J. (1999), Cultural Consumption and Everyday Life, Arnold Publishing, London Veblen, T. (1994), The Theory of the Leisure Class, Dover Publications, Ontario Woodward, K. (2003), Social Sciences: The Big Issues, Routledge, London 1 Footnotes [1] Corrigan, P. (2006), p.17 [2] Corrigan, P. (2006), p.17 [3] Weber, M. (1976), pp.59-60 in Corrigan, P. (2006), p.66 [4] Belk, R. W. (1988), p.105 in Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F. Kiron, D. (1997), p.312 [5] Ransome, P. (2005), p.96 [6] Bocock, R. (2001), p.37 [7] Douglas, M. Isherwood, B. (2005), p.xxxi [8] Douglas, M. Isherwood, B., in Corrigan, P. (2006), p.17 [9] Jenkins, S. in Guardian Unlimited, 10th January 2007 [10] Jenkins, S. in Guardian Unlimited, 10th January 2007 [11] The Daily Mail, 8th January 2006 [12] The New York Times, 22nd September 2005 [13] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [14] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [15] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [16] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [17] Smart, B. Ritzer, G. ed (2003), p.424 [18] Ratneshwar, S. Mick, D. G. ed. (2005), p.305 [19] Ratneshwar, S. Mick, D. G. ed. (2005), p.305

The Downfall of Man in Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe :: Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays

I would like to comment about how Crusoe lived with himself after he became the master in a heirarchy where he was once the slave. He is so unhappy with his role of slave he takes the first opportunity given to him to escape. He also takes the first opportunity given to him to become the master of those left on the boat. This is unforgivable. He throws a man over board because he does not believe he can trust him, but he knows he can trust the first boat that sails his way. Does this sound funny to anyone else? He also offers to give all of his possetions to the captain of the boat that saves him: "I immediatlely offered all I had to the Captain of the Ship..."(204) How did he know the captain was not going to kill him and keep his possetions anyway. The captain turns down the opportunity to take Crusoe's desperate offer. However, he does offer him money for a boat that does not belong to Crusoe and the poor Boy Xury, who does not belong to anyone. How soon Crusoe forgets the horribl e life of being a slave!! It is humorous how it is only those who are in the possition of master who think slavery is a good idea. Crusoe then meets Friday. He saves his life, much the way the captain saved Crusoe's life. Friday offers all he has (which is not much) to Crusoe, much like Crusoe did for the captain. However, Crusoe is too selfish to turn Friday down on his offer as the captain did. He takes advantage of the man and immediatly introduces him to slavery. Crusoe is an example of the downfall of man. Humans are sometimes so obsessed with power they only focus on who can be controlled. Whether it is separated by class, gender, color, or as Courtney said religion one group must always feel as if it has power over another. This is common theme in litersature and in life. As I read the excerpt from Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" in "Oronooko" I found myself confused with the point that Defoe was trying to make. Allison, I agree with you completely when you say that the actions of Crusoe "sound kind of funny." I too feel that Crusoe is an example of the downfall of man. First reading the

Conjoined Twins has Been Reported in Some Newspapers and on the Television News Essay

Explore, analyse and comment on the way the story of the conjoined twins has been reported in some newspapers and on the television news. In modern day society, the media has considerable command and influence over the public. It can be powerful in both positive and negative ways. Although the media is to be embraced, it is also to be treated with utmost care. The way the media is able to manipulate and shape our ideas is paramount to its power; sometimes to the extent where it does not give us a chance to rationalise our opinions. In my opinion the media has a very important function and has a crucial purpose in society. It can be educational, informative, interesting and entertaining yet, at the same time, the media can be biased, derogatory and sensational. Too often, people take notice, [and are influenced by], only one form of media. This can lead to a polarised point of view and therefore a narrow-minded outlook. These people are totally oblivious to the clever devices certain areas of the media will use to ‘con and deceive’ them in order to manipulate their train of thought. In this analysis, I will be exploring exactly how the media does this in both newspaper and television broadcast form. I consider both television broadcasts and newspapers to be equally effective overall in their use of presentational devices. There are, however, fundamental differences in the way this is achieved. Television has the upper hand in terms of sheer versatility; for example, it can use moving diagrams and images to display its ideas whereas the newspapers do not have that ability. In comparison, newspapers are able to make an impact within their limited scope and can be just as effective as a television broadcast. Remember, depending upon the context, a short sharp caption / headline can be far more effective than a moving image. To begin with, I feel that each report is slightly or more heavily biased in one way or another. In my view, there are two clearly different ways in which to summarise the consequences of the failed operation. Firstly, the negative approach. The slant taken here is of a sensationalised tragedy, evoking sympathy and focusing on the twins and their struggling desire to be independent and how they, ‘fell at the last hurdle’. Both The Sun and the ITN news favour this type of report. Secondly, the positive approach. The Independent and the BBC news are much more inclined to portray the twins as happy smiling individuals who fulfilled their dream of separation – if only for a matter of hours. It is very difficult to ignore the deliberately blatant sensational devices that are used by The Sun. There is no doubt in my mind that the emboldened headline: â€Å"Glorious Failure OR a Lethal Gamble?† is attempting to initiate a scandal and is evidently ‘tabloidese’. Nevertheless, considering what the, [stereotypical], characteristics of a, [stereotypical], tabloid reader are, it is a very effective headline for it is scandalous and sensationalised. This is exactly it’s aim. It immediately involves the reader for it is a rhetorical question and therefore a very good non-fiction hook. From the outset of the ITN report, ethical questions are raised upon whether the operation should have been attempted or not. â€Å"the surgeons are†¦trying to explain why it didn’t work. They create a portrayal of the twins making a wrong decision and also they place an element of blame upon the shoulders of the medical team. The opening images of the twins are of them looking anxious, whereas more informative reports clearly indicate that the twins were fully confident that the decision to go ahead with the operation was solely theirs. They are seen to be in a dilema, yet they were totally committed. The subsequent images told of the girls’ life in society. However, rather than focusing upon the positive aspects of their life, [such as the fact that Laleh had helped her sister realise her dream of attaining a law degree], they emphasised their struggle and the hardship they had suffered. The portrayal was as if their whole life was a dramatic tragedy, whereas this was certainly not the case. Similarly, the images shown in The Sun are just as negative. The choice of images are classic for a tabloid on this sort of topic. No scientific diagrams here! They are all downbeat just as though everything was a complete failure. A picture of Dr. Goh is particularly emotional with his head held in his hands. This was also true of the captions, â€Å"Battling in vain†¦Ã¢â‚¬  unarguably negative. I feel that The Sun has blown the event out of all proportion and has missed the point somewhat. It is clear to me that Laden and Laleh Bijani knew the risks and were willing to accept the consequences, however bad they may turn out to be. Therefore, there is no scandal. The use of the â€Å"What do you think?† box at the bottom of the page indicates a distinct lack of sensitivity on what is a clearly a very sensitive story. What right do everyday people have to make a judgement on an event they have been ill informed on? It is The Sun after all! Admittedly, this use of direct appeal is effective for The Sun’s ultimate aim: to sell as many copies as possible for, as with the headline, it involves the reader. In comparison, The Independent has far less emotive pictures. They are reflective yet still touching. The page is dominated by a large portrait of the two twins; happy and smiling, optimistic. The other two smaller pictures are of Dr. Goh and a friend who, unlike in The Sun are pictured showing their obvious disappointment as opposed to their despair. I think it is important to note the facial expression of the twins in the images chosen by each of the papers. They are apparently anxious in The Sun and hopeful and optimistic in The Independent. The pictures from The Independent are the way in which I think the twins would want to be seen by the global community. I feel that the ITN news was rather contradictory in places as â€Å"impossible to imagine what life was like† – and yet they questioned whether the operation should ever have been attempted. If they truly empathised with the twins, they would have realised how desperate they were and that it was solely their decision to proceed. Unquestionably, the ITN news is more tactful in its approach in comparison with The Sun for it does not try to consider alternative options to separation and is ultimately less scandalous. After the initial report, there are video images and archive film of other pairs of conjoined twins to illustrate the fact that there have always been these unfair stereotypical views towards this particular disability. Before the condition was truly understood, these people, real human people, were treated like animals, forced to perform in freak shows. It is therefore understandable that Laleh and Laleh Bijani went to these lengths to achieve their dream. This feature is subsequently followed by a simple but very clear three-dimensional animation describing the medical procedure that the twins went through. Although the ITN news is informative to an extent, compared to the BBC, it lacks depth and scientific details. Incidentally though, ITN is the more entertaining of the two news reports. Despite this, the BBC news has, in my opinion, a far more rounded report that simply informs the reader. Unsurprisingly, both reports have the same bare facts but the BBC elaborates on these aspects with a greater depth of detail. For example, the BBC is the only report out of all four reports that has evidence from the twins themselves. They give a press interview where they state their fearlessness. In addition, the way in which the BBC presents how the operation was performed is not as aesthetically pleasing as that of ITN but is realistic and actually refers to scientific principals, whereas the ITN news does not. I think the BBC have done this because the type of people who would watch their broadcast are considered to be genuinely interested in the scientific aspects of the procedure. Perhaps IT N did not go into so much depth because they might want to appeal to a more general audience. I feel that all four of the articles and reports use language effectively and successfully to achieve their aim. What is instantly striking about The Sun regarding its use of language is that it is pure emotion from the outset. In any newspaper, the first thing that grabs your attention is either the banner headline at the top, (which here is white text against a black background for added visibility), or the main headline, (which is underlined for the same reason). I think phrases such as â€Å"DADS FURY† in the banner headline, sets the tone for the rest of the article. The headline of The Sun, as mentioned before, instantly raises a debate rather than just to tell a story. This is very useful because rhetorical questions always get the readership involved in one way or another. Strangely enough, the headline in The Independent is, on one level, similar to that of The Sun. Doubtlessly, both headlines raise some sort of debate regarding the operation. However, The Independent is significantly more conservative and handles the article in a refrained fashion. There is just one caption in The Independent and is predictably informative and is more of a statement than the three used in The Sun. The Sun has an emotive statement followed by an ellipsis to create emotion, for instance, â€Å"Heartbreak†¦Ã¢â‚¬  These emotive statements are then followed by a short description of who is in the picture. The Independent uses no hint of colloquialism to appeal to a wider, more general audience. However, The Sun does this on a couple of occasions. â€Å"and a pal of the twins† as if to make the reader empathise as well as sympathise to think what it would be like if you lost a â€Å"pal†. The BBC is similar to The Independent for they both use a higher standard of vocabulary and specialist scientific language throughout their report. In comparison the ITN news has a range of vocabulary, including idiom, to make the report more accessible. The Sun is considered to be an â€Å"easy† read so it is of no surprise that both the vocabulary and the sentence structure are relatively simple. The general feeling that I get whilst reading The Independent is that it initially firstly focuses upon the debate in question and secondly comes round to what actually happened. Whether this is deliberate or not remains to be seen but I think it is in this order because it is simply more interesting. Evidence to support this argument lies in the topic sentence. â€Å"the death†¦twins†¦raises questions†¦should have been allowed† Unlike The Sun’s leading sentence, The Independent leads into an evenly supported discussion whereas The Sun’s article is more biased in favour of a negative way. There are two occasions on which italics are used to emphasise a paragraph in The Sun. Its use in the fourth paragraph of the story acts as a sub-heading and I feel that it is in Italics because special notice should be taken of it. It mentions the twins’ father and the following half dozen paragraphs elaborate on the initial focus of the father’s anger. The second instance of Italics is â€Å"Laleh and Laden won the hearts of millions.† Again, this acts as a sub-heading because it leads into a brief description of their personal lives. In the second column, the reporter emboldens one word to initiate discussion, â€Å"to give the women a new life WAS morally justified† The journalist used this to reinforce the theme of dispute into the minds of the reader. However, in my opinion, the readers knew that it was in fact morally justified and so it also used as a connective to link the first part of the story into evidence given by interviewees in the second part of the story. In all four reports, expert opinion and interviews are used to great effect. The interviews within The Independent are taken from people who are genuinely qualified to give an honest and rounded opinion. However, The Sun uses people emotionally connected to the twins and thus their rationality may be clouded and their emotions are more evidently expressed in the evidence given. For instance, a medical ethics expert would be the best person to comment on the medical ethics of the operation, whereas, the man who raised the twins would not be. Alizera Saifain, (the girls adopted father), said: â€Å"I knew they would bring back their bodies. They took them there and killed them† This is an extremely emotive statement. Any parent who witnesses their children die would be traumatised. Equally, the television broadcasts contrast in a similar way. For instance, the BBC World Affairs Correspondent uses a hint of unnecessary repetition on how â€Å"crushed† the medics were regarding the operation. However, some may say that the BBC gives credit to the doctors and surgeons because of the vast amount of time and effort they invested into the twin’s case. Even though it is such a tragic story, the BBC still continues in a positive frame of mind during an interview with an Iranian doctor who stresses how courageous and optimistic the twins were. This demonstrates a personal approach that balances the scientific with the emotional aspects. Furthermore, a neurosurgeon explaining the risks of the operation uses specialist scientific vocabulary and idiom to ensure that his views are accessible to a wide audience including the scientific community. As with The Independent, the BBC also utilises a medical ethics expert from the British Medical Association. The surgeon who is interviewed by ITN news changes the whole mood and the tone of the interview by using the word â€Å"alas†, because this shows that he is, or wants to be, seen as emotionally involved with the twins. Another admirable touch from ITN is that they mention that the relatives of the deceased place no blame upon the doctors. In both sets of interviews, the comments made on the medical teams in particular are relatively complimentary. In addition to this evidence, a German specialist is interviewed and claims that he advised against the operation. He is not able to speak English therefore a voice over translation has been used. This raises questions over its authenticity. Although the main thrust would still be the same, ITN could, potentially, make some subtle changes to emphasise certain points. In conclusion, I think it is quite clear that the each of the four reports fulfil their purpose in every way. They know their target audience and have written their articles and scripts in accordance with this. The purpose of any media is to leave some sort of message with the audience and all four of these do exactly that.